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RN: Christian Ethics(1)

本篇内容为读书笔记的第一篇,主要记录了基督教的基本主张,以及影响基督教的两希文化(希伯来以及希腊文化)。本篇存在着大量的新的观点,尤其是一些神学观点和观点细节对于中国人来说属于全新观点,需要花费很多时间去理解。另外关于宗教的一些观点,难免由于理解偏差出现错误,欢迎指正。

为什么阅读这本书?

因为试图了解基督教文化的一些常识,所以找了这本书进行阅读。在阅读本书 Christian Ethics A Very Short Introduction之前,我还阅读了 The Bible: A Very Short Introduction 简单挑选下后,选择了本书。坦白来讲本书的关注点在于Christian和Ethics是如何交互和融合的,和我想要了解更多的基督教本书还存在偏差。但在阅读时对标题存在误解,认为Christian Ethics是属于Christian的一部分,所以就继续读下去了。

概要与收获

该本书主要关注什么是Christian,什么是Ethics,以及如何在理论层面将两个词汇结合起来。我个人对Christian和Ethics的相关内容基本不知道, 所以这本书应该来说做到了很好的启蒙和介绍,比较符合标题含义 A Very Short Introduction. 具体起来有三点, - 基督教的主张是是什么 - 传统、现代和后现代伦理道德的主张 - 基督教伦理道德是如何将两种概念融合

本书主要的四个章节如下,主要的思路是分别介绍两个分开的话题,然后介绍在融合时产生的一些矛盾问题以及之后的解决方案。

  • The sources of Christian ethics
  • The history of Christian ethics
  • Christian ethics in and beyond modernity
  • Sex, money and power: some questions for Christian ethics

概述

由于和基督教相关的一些失败案例:Crusades, the Inquisition, the conquest of the Americas, religious wars, the Galileo affair, defences of slavery and patriarchy, 正如 Christopher Hitechens 指责的,ethics和 Christian由于相互矛盾无法融合成一个新概念。

If Hitchens is correct, then ‘ethics’ cannot be allied with Christianity; it is its alternative. A sensitive ethical conscience would abandon Christian faith.

这里我们首先看经典哲学的观点,这里主要引用亚里士多德(Aristotle)的观点。

Ethics is most often understood as a thoroughly human endeavour.

亚里士多德认为万物都有其自然的终点:

Intrinsic to an acorn’s nature are the means to achieve this end. With the right nurturing, proper soil, light, nutrients, and so on, the acorn will naturally achieve its end. Likewise, the human creature has a natural, ethical end, which is to live a good life that achieves happiness, or what in Greek is called eudaimonia. We have everything in our nature that we need for such an end if it flourishes in the proper circumstances.

在达到终点的过程中,亚里士多德认为人是自治的(autonomy),也即人天生拥有所有达到人生终点的必要条件。

Not only Aristotle but also much of modern ethics assumes the autonomy of human nature as the basis for ethics.

这时,传统伦理道德和基督教伦理道德产生了一个巨大的矛盾,也即关于自治性的存在与否。基督教认为人类天生不具备所有达成人生终点的所有条件,那么我们需要依赖超自然的存在(grace/supernatural virtues) 来补全、帮助达成人生的终极目标。

But for Christians, to think that we can achieve the good through our own resources is the heresy known as ‘Pelagianism’. It denies that we need grace and/or supernatural virtues in order to achieve our end, which is to dwell with God and have God dwell with us. Such an end - friendship with God - exceeds any natural ability we bring about on our own.

同样对于终点的定义,基督教和经典哲学的认知也是不同的,基督教认为终点是 "friendship with God", 而Classic认为是 "Happiness". 那么这里的重大分歧引发了一个新的问题,也即“基督教是否需要伦理道德”?

基督教是否需要伦理道德?

如上文叙述,基督教和传统伦理道德存在分歧,所以本书需要针对这个关键分歧进行讨论以便继续文章。在尝试融合过程中,存在两种不同方向的评估: - 基督教对伦理道德的评估 - 伦理道德对基督教的评估

两个概念的融合是相互的而非单向,但通常来说基督教像较于传统伦理道德需要更多的评估。例如在基督教对传统伦理道德进行评估时,有时非基督传统的伦理道德要求基督教对其合理化(accountable), 但有时基督教需要坚持削减一些传统的伦理道德在基督教教义内部的合理性。即便是"super-natural' 也假设了自然的地位:

Although Christianity never assumes we can finally redeem ourselves, the more (super-) that is given to the ‘natural’ presumes a role for ‘nature’ in redemption.

这里的超自然应该说的是一种paganism,即传统伦理道德对自然的崇拜和敬畏。天主教普遍的表述( "grace presupposes and perfects nature")很好的表达了这个含义。但是同样这也引起了争议,因为他将传统伦理道德的概念过度的带入了基督教中:

the Reformed theologian Karl Barth suspected it might bring too much ‘pagan’ morality into Christianity. It might allow for a ‘natural law’ approach to ethics that eschews grace.

这里作者通过 Karl Barth进行转折,表示基督教同样意识到伦理道德的重要性并且随着历史流动通过不同的方式将 Christian和 Ethics融合在一起。这里的转折略有突兀,因为如何对待自然的态度并不是一个很好承接 下文对两者融合过程叙述的引子。但无论如何,我们继续进行阅读,这里提到的融合的目的是为了让“信仰照亮伦理道德”以及“合理正确的理解伦理道德来明确信仰”:

at its best ‘Christian ethics’ allows both for the faith to illumine ethics and for a reasonable understanding of ethics to clarify the faith.

但正如作者指出的那样,对于此书的读者什么是Christian以及什么是Ethics都不是一个很明确的概念,所以文章需要继续来介绍什么是基督教以及什么是伦理道德。

什么是基督教

原文标题为 "What is Christian",这里表为基督教。基督教堂没有给出一个统一普遍的答案,其中不同教派(Orthodox, Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Anabaptists, Protestants)对Christian的定义不尽相同,即便是同样的教派(Christian Church)内也存在不同的观点分支(divisions), 例如 charismatics, evangelicals, progressives, revisionists, traditionalists, and etc. 所以给出一个普遍精准的定义是不可行的,但尽管如此,他们之间存在一些共识, 也基督教的核心是将耶稣作为上帝信奉。

Christians worship Jesus as God.

这也就是广义的基督教,指信奉耶稣基督为救世主的所有教派,这里的救世主也即希伯来人期待的弥赛亚(Messiah, 和基督Christ同意),但而犹太教并不认可基督就是弥赛亚,相信弥赛亚仍在未来。

这里需要注意的是西方基督教的教派在中国并不存在,正中国政府官网基督教历史及中国基督教的历史一文介绍的,这里“过去外国传教士传下来的一些神学思想,与社会的发展、时代的进步不相适应,产生矛盾和冲突”提到的矛盾冲突没有明确提出,我也无意进行深入了解,故中国教会不在讨论之列。

1958年各种不同信仰礼仪背景的教会实行了“联合礼拜”。从此中国教会进入“后宗派时期”,基督教的宗派组织在我国不复存在。

随着中国基督教三自爱国运动的发展,过去外国传教士传下来的一些神学思想,与社会的发展、时代的进步不相适应,产生矛盾和冲突。在丁光训主教的大力倡导下,中国基督教界积极探索开展神学思想建设。1998年11月,基督教全国“两会”(中国基督教三自爱国运动委员会、中国基督教协会)在济南召开全体委员会,作出了开展神学思想建设的决议。神学思想建设的主要内容是:如何结合中国国情和文化,阐述基督教的基本信仰及道德规范,使中国基督教与社会主义社会相适应。

对于耶稣的信仰可以在任何教堂中所找到,存在相对简单的仪式例如耶稣的言被传颂,被敬仰,祈祷者以他的名字祈祷,同样也有更隆重的意识,例如祭坛,红酒和面包。

The words of Jesus will be honoured and read, and prayers will be offered to him and in his name The centre of worship might be an altar table on which a priest performs an elaborate ritual claiming that in the bread and wine Jesus is fully present

同样基督教信仰基督耶稣与犹太教有着相同的理解,因为他们共享了Scriptures, 也即旧约(Old Testaments):

Christians also worship Jesus within the context of a shared understanding with Judaism as to who God is, for Christians share Scriptures with Jews and believe we cannot know God’s identity without these shared Scriptures.

故他们均认可摩西十诫(Ten Commandments), 在犹太人出埃及后犹太人民以摩西(Moses)为纽带,与上帝建立的约定(Covenants). 比如前三条展示了对上帝的认知:

I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery; 3 you shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself an idol, whether in the form of anything that is in heaven above or that is on the earth beneath or that is in the water under the earth. You shall not make wrongful use of the name of the Lord your God, for the Lord will not acquit anyone who misuses his name

也即只能信仰上帝,没有事物可以是上帝(不能具象化),不可滥用上帝的名。

God alone is to be worshipped, and no creature is to stand in God's place. Nor are we to use God's name for vain and empty things.

Ten Commandments 与信仰耶稣

基督教对旧约的认可和对耶稣的信仰产生了矛盾,作为creature的耶稣如何能作为上帝来信仰呢?同样也违反了只能信仰上帝的戒律。

Christians worship Jesus as God, recognize he is fully human, and confess that humanity is not divinity.

历史上存在较多相关争议,故在(AD 325-81)年间主教(bishops)在Constantinople和Nicaea 聚集,确立了三位一体(Triune/Trinity)的概念。三位一体即:圣父、圣子、圣灵三个不同的位格为同一本体、同一本质、同一属性,是一位上帝,他们以同本体论来表达他们之间的关连。三位一体是基督教三大宗派的基本信条。

God is one essence, but this one essence is found in three Persons: the Father, the Son, and the Holy Spirit. Each of these Persons is also the full essence of God. Each is regularly invoked in Christian worship as worthy of adoration. Each is considered to be an agent who made possible creation and redemption.

As the Fourth Lateran Council declared, it is the Father who begets, the Son who is begotten, and the Holy Spirit who proceeds.

随着三位一体的建立,基督耶稣作为第二位格(the Son),也是上帝的化身(incarnation)被作为上帝信仰。化身论的定义在AD 451在Council of Chalcedon确立。

He was begotten before the ages from the Father according to his deity, but in the last days for us and our salvation, the same one was born of the Virgin Mary, the bearer of God (Theotokos), according to his humanity. He is one and the same Christ, Son, Lord, and Only Begotten, who is made known in two natures (physeis) united unconfusedly, unchangeably, indivisibly, inseparably. The distinction between the natures (physeis) is not at all destroyed because of the union, but rather the property of each nature (physis) is preserved and concurs together into one person (prosopon) and subsistence (hypostasis). He is not separated or divided into two persons (prosopa), but he is one and the same Son, the Only Begotten, God the Logos, the Lord Jesus Christ.

耶稣与伦理道德

耶稣作为上帝的化身,人与神的特性被同时以不融合的方式表示,上帝既不变成人,人也不会丢失人格, 他们结合在一起完成永恒的统一,这种统一由耶稣的生与死,复活与提升(exaltation)所完美展现。 这里翻译的不太好,原文如下:

In the One Person Jesus of Nazareth, God and humanity are both present, but they are present in such a way that both remain what they are. One is not changaed into another. God does not become human in some mythological sense. Nor does humanity cease being humanity. Yet they are not united. This unity is eternal, for Jesus's life, death, resurrection, and exaltation established the perfect intimacyu between God and humanity.

这里这种结合对于基督教来说至关重要,极大程度上影响力其对伦理道德的理解。正如祈祷词所透漏的那样,人们会变成神圣自然的携带者,用以将无法救赎自己的人们从罪邪恶和死亡中救赎:

God became human so that humans can become god

这展示了基督教中超自然的一面,正如文中开始提到的那样,基督教不相信人们天生拥有达成人类终点的所有条件。那么耶稣通过他的生平向人们昭示了这种超自然的存在,由于在成为神圣自然携带者的过程中,人性(humanity)的存在, 基督教同样不能摒弃存在与平凡生活中的伦理道德。

for this is something Jesus alone accomplished as the perfect union of God and humanity. He was crucified and raised from the dead, uniting creaturely reality to God. He now invites creatures to participate in that union by being reconciled with God and one another. Here is one important reason why ethics matters for Christianity; such reconciliation will have salutary consequences that should be identifiable in everyday life.

基督教化身与选举和伦理道德产生的矛盾

基督教中耶稣作为上帝的化身,以及人/国家被上帝从所有人和国家中挑选,从传统伦理道德的视角中是否道德?许多现代神学家认为其不道德,例如在1977年出版物"The Myth of God Incarnate"中,作者 John Hick认为是时候摒弃基督教传统化身的教导并将其认为成神话,将耶稣认为是“被上帝承认作为一个带有神性的特殊角色”而不是上帝化身:

The need arises from growing knowledge of Christian origins and involves a recognition that Jesus was (as he is presented in Acts 2:21) ‘a man approved by God’ for a special role within the divine purpose, and that the later conception of him as God incarnate, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity living a human life is a mythological or poetic way of expressing his significance for us.

并不是所有学者同意这种观点,但是 Hick的观点仍然对现代产生了较大影响。如果神性和人性结合在耶稣身上,但是无法在别的地方寻找到,基督教将如何对待世界其他的宗教,同样也会产生不包容。对于Hick来说,这种转变带走了排他性:

Like Hick, this takes away any exclusive uniqueness to Christianity that would set it against other religions.

但这种观点事实上是假设我们了解伦理道德的构成,然后将基督教适用其中。这产生了“伦理道德的基督教”(ethical Christianity),而非“基督教的伦理道德”(Christian ethics)。这里面存在一个很细微但本质的区别:我们应该从伦理道德起去思考基督教,还是从基督教起去思考伦理道德? 但无论是哪个方面,基督教都无法轻易的避开化身与选举这两个话题:

This does not mean that Christians and non-Christians cannot agree on what constitutes ethics, but it does mean that Christian ethics cannot shy away from the ‘scandal of particularity’ that is found in both Judaism and Christianity. That scandal is that God ‘elects’ a specific people in the world to effect God’s mission: Israel, Jesus, and the Church. This is the doctrine of election. The doctrine of election, whereby God freely chooses one particular people to effect God’s will in the world, seems unethical, especially in light of Kant’s categorical imperative that defines so much of modern ethics

正如 Rabbi David Novak(Rabbi是希伯来语中我的老师的意思)所说:

Indeed, these claims, like ‘God elects Israel’ or ‘God is incarnate in Jesus,’ are what Judaism and Christianity are all about.

那么,对于化身和选举与传统伦理道德的矛盾,需要进一步的考察什么是伦理道德。

基督教伦理道德的起源

正如Introduction一章中介绍的基督教相关知识,这里进一步介绍什么是伦理道德。需要提及的是,作者将介绍伦理道德的篇幅放在第一章,而不在序章中出现是因为基督教出现之前伦理道德的相关讨论已经出现, 同时基督教同样受到了很深的影响,虽然两者是并列的概念,但放在第一章来介绍也是合理的。但个人来讲我认为这里并没有总结得特别好,应该在序章里简单介绍一些。

When Christianity arrives, ‘ethics’ is already well established, both in Judaism and in what became known as ‘pagan’ ethics.

基督教保留了两者的传统,吸取了自然神论者对于好的认知,但同时也展示了其局限性,宣布了耶稣是如何满足而不是摧毁了犹太教伦理道德的。

早期基督教对Pagan Ethics的态度

这里说的Pagan可以译为“自然神论者,多神论者”等。

belonging or relating to a religion that worships many gods, especially one that existed before the main world religions

belonging or relating to a modern religion that includes beliefs and activities that are not from any of the main religions of the world, for example the worship of nature

这里的pagan说的是理性地追求好和避免坏, 早期基督教把这种思想叫做 'pagan wisdom', 一个不具有褒义的词。

(Pagan) Ethics in the broadest sense is the rational pursuit of what is good and avoidance of that which is evil.

正如St Paul所问, 上帝让这个世界上的智慧变得愚蠢。在《哥林多前书》中,保罗向哥林多教会的人提出这个问题,来批评他们追求世俗智慧和权力的倾向。他认为,上帝的智慧超越了人类的智慧,人类的智慧在上帝面前是愚蠢的。

Where is the wise person? Where is the teacher of the law? Where is the philosopher of this age? Has not God made foolish the wisdom of the world?

也正是这种原因,早期基督教认为智慧存在于生物内部, 我们应该在一切可以寻找到智慧的地方寻找智慧,包括伦理道德的智慧。

God had created a world that could be rationally understood, and that goodness was intrinsic to the reason present in creation. For this reason, wisdom should be sought wherever it was found, including ethical wisdom.

柏拉图与亚里士多德(Plato and Aristotle)

For Plato, the good is a ‘form’ that transcends the material reality of everyday. We need to see beyond such material reality in order to pursue the good. For Aristotle, the good is a form found in everyday things. We need to look to them in order to pursue the good. For both, the good is an object that produces

For both, the good is an object that produces desires in us. These desires cause us to seek the good, which is more than what produces the desires that start us on the journey, desires for pleasure, wealth, fame, and honour. None of these can satisfy the desire the good produces. If we stop at them, then we will fail to achieve our true end, the good.

美德(Virtues)

Pagan道德强调美德(Virtue), 用以正确的追求好(the successful pursuit of the good). 获得美德就像学习一门艺术或手艺,通过反复练习才能获得。要学会弹竖琴就必须反复练习弹竖琴。要想具有勇敢、公正、节制等美德,也需要从反复的勇敢行为、公正行为和节制行为中获得。

Virtue is a power or potential in the human creature that is repeatedly exercised until it becomes part of who the person is.

这种考虑引入了所谓的'cardinal virtues', 他们是正义(Justice), 智慧(Wisdom), 勇气(Courage)和温和(Temperance). 亚里士多德认为有意义的美德需要特定的文明生活,也就是说奴隶,女人和一些外国人是被亚里士多德的美德概念排除在外的。但无论如何, 亚里士多德认为人们所有的行为都是为了追求同样一个目标,也就是幸福。所有道德的行为都在它隐形或显性的吸引下。伦理道德目的,也就是引导我们如何维持在人生终点上,既不过度也不匮乏。

Nonetheless, Aristotle did think that every person aimed for one thing in his or her actions, which was happiness. All moral action took place under its implicit or explicit pull. Happiness, or eudaimonia in Greek, was the good, without which human action would not make sense. This was the telos, the Greek word for ‘end’, which everyone and everything desired. For that reason, ancient virtue ethics is often called ‘eudaimonistic’ and ‘teleological’. It assumes an end present in the nature of all things, for which they aim.

美德不是过度和缺乏的妥协,而是一种远离无序需求的保持稳定的状态:

The virtues are not a ‘compromise’ between two vices, as if friendliness would require the right amount of grouchiness and obsequiousness. The vices are disordered desires, which are to be avoided.

自然法(Natural Law)

自然法(Natural Law)是由亚里士多德提出,和伦理道德中和美德相提并论的另一种方法。由于语言,习俗,法律在不同社会中大相径庭,这会导致一些法律只在特定社会起作用,被叫做positive law. 自然法相较于社会建立的法律,更加本质与基础,因为他是根据自然本身建立的。自然法是一种伦理学和法律学的理论,认为存在一种超越人类制定的法律和政府权威的基本道德法则。这些法则不是由人类制定的,而是天生就存在的。自然法的支持者认为,法律应该符合这些基本道德法则,否则它们就不是真正的法律。这种观点认为,如果一个法律违反了这些基本道德法则,那么它就不应该被认为是合法的法律,而应该被视为不公正的法律。自然法对后世的影响极大:

Early and medieval Christianity, along with Judaism and Islam, developed the Greek and Roman traditions of the natural law, and this has an ongoing influence in modern Christian ethics.

例如马丁·路德·金(Martin Luther King Jr.)所说的“an unjust law is no law at all”,他认为,不公正的法律不应该被遵守,因为它们违反了基本的道德法则。这与自然法的观点相符。在马丁·路德·金的理念中,公正与道德密切相关,而不公正的法律与道德不符,因此不应该被认为是真正的法律。这种观点强调了个人的良知和道德责任,认为人们应该遵循自己的良知和道德,而不是盲目服从法律。

相似的,the Roman pagan Celsus指责基督教不颂扬每个国家拥有自己宗教和伦理道德的普遍智慧。但基督教思想家Origen(AD 185-254)并不同意这个观点, 如下文指出:

The Christian thinker Origen (AD 185-254) rejected this, along with Celsus’s claim that the ‘written laws of cities’ were to be honoured more so than the ‘ultimate law of nature’ given by God. For Origen, if the former contradicts the latter, the former is to be ignored even if that requires ‘dangers, troubles, death and shame’.

基督教与美德(Christians and the virtues)

尽管基督教不特别重视自然法,美德仍然在基督教内部有一席之地。例如Ambrose认为旧约中的首领们(patriarchs),如Abraham,jacob,Joseph,Job,David集美德于一身,是最好的美德宣扬者,首领们拥有最多的美德。但是St Augustine(AD 354-430) 认为pagan virtue存在局限,并签署认定pagan virtues是一种大的恶习(splendid vices)。 因为它自身是不完备的,无法保留和培养生命中的好。他认为达成幸福,也即前文提到的人生终点,是对上帝的爱.

As to virtue leading us to a happy life, I hold virtue to be nothing else than perfect love of God.

奥古斯汀新颖的修改了美德的传统,对上帝的爱驱使了我们所有的期望。沿着这个思路,大部分基督教传统跟随这个实践,将pagan moral wisdom取代,并在基督教信念的上下文中重新叙述。这种方法确立和转变了古代美德, 不但将古代美德区分为'cardinal'和'natural', 同时加入了新的"注入的美德"('theological/infused'). 这些注入到美德可以在典籍中找到,也即信仰(faith), 希望(hope)和爱(love). 需要注意的是这些美德是无限的,是过度的(infinite and excessive),因为上帝是无限的. 这里显著区别于传统伦理道德中对美德的认知,一种和谐,既不过度,也不缺乏。

These virtues, because they draw us into the life of God, do not know an excess to be avoided; for God is infinite. God is ‘excess’. The theological virtues then reorder all the virtues.

13世纪的St Thomas Aquinas仍然从传统美德中汲取灵感并且在基督教经典中给出进一步的验证,他认为只有注入的美德是真正的美德,其他的都是“在特定条件限制下的美德”(virtues in a restricted sense)。这些特定条件下的美德可以让我们的生活朝着好发展,但是他无法合适指引我们到达人生的终点。这里需要注意的是这个句子的重点不是否定人的自治性,而是更换了人的终极目标,亚里士多德所提出的幸福不再是人生的终极目标,新的终极目标是与三位一体的上帝的友谊。Aquinas不否认获得性美德(acquired virtues)的重要性,但他坚持认为为了达到人生的终点,我们需要注入的美德和圣灵的结果(the fruit of the Holy Spirit)和 beatitudes(sum up Jesus' teaching about what it means to live as a child of God's kingdom). 对他来说,基督教伦理道德更多的是来自上帝的礼物而非成就。

犹太教伦理道德: Torah as social project and the Church as a social ethic

基督教与犹太教共同承认旧约,故犹太教伦理道德对基督教有重大深远影响。犹太教的内容主要来自圣经中的叙述,尤其是Abraham和Sarah的呼唤和作为后代的犹太人,作为万国之国,上帝的选民,获得了保佑,包括了神性的名(the Devine Name 注意这里不是上帝的名),还有 Torah和Tabernacle/Temple(上帝居住的地方)。犹太人的这些内容同样对基督教影响深远,离开了这些内容基督教将变成无根之水无本之木,变得毫无意义。事实上在历史上基督教也试图斩断与旧约的联系,但以失败告终。那么在基督教中,教会(Church)继续着Abraham和Sarah的任务,目标是让“上帝的王国”降世。很多内容,如the Lord's Prayer, the Sermon on the ount, the Theological Virtues, the Sacraments始终提示这个教会的这个目标。

The Call of Abraham

创世纪前11章内容被称作'primal history', 主要以周边多文化神话以来源,以上帝的呼唤出发而改写。例如上帝创造万物的故事收到了巴比伦神话的影响。在创世纪中,造物主的创造物归根结底是善的,那也是他们居住在伊甸乐园之中,直到违背上帝被逐出:

Creation is so good that God dwells in it, especially in the Garden of Eden, where God ‘walks’ and ‘communicates’ with Adam and Eve. But they disobey God and are expelled from the garden and therefore from God’s presence.

人类被逐出了伊甸园,但是上帝仍然居住在乐园内,在旧约中,Tabernacle和Temple就代表了又上帝所居住,剩余的乐园:

In the Old Testament, the Tabernacle and then the Temple represents the remnant of the garden as the dwelling-place of God.

The Temple has three parts, the porch(ulam), the holy place(hekal) and the Holy of Holies(debir), where God dwells. the hekal of ‘the Temple interior was a garden representing the heavenly garden on the mountain of God, the original Garden of Eden’. The debir is the place of God’s presence, a presence lost after the Fall.

那么对于上帝的信仰,牧师(priest)的工作就是把人(的灵魂)带回到上帝之处,寻求修复原始太初(original),那种上帝和子民最初居住在一起的和谐与秩序,同时人类也和动物和睦相处,直到诺亚与上帝定约之后上帝才允许人类吃动物。诺亚的橡木舟也代表了上帝宁静的王国,一种弥赛亚似的,造物者和子民们宁静的生活在一起。

诺亚的约(The Noahic covenant)

诺亚的约是旧约中众多约中的一部分,诺亚的约同样也塑造了基督教和犹太教的传统,诺亚的约是:

‘Seven commandments were given to the children of Noah: regarding the establishments of courts of justice, idolatry, blasphemy, fornication, bloodshed, theft and the torn limb’.

这里诺亚的约在犹太教传统中(rabbinic tradition)中是有争议的,但通常诺亚的约被解释为非犹太人应该被期待的行为:

They(the Noahic covenants) were interpreted as what should be expeected from a righteous Gentile living in the Holy Land, as well as the basic morality one should expect from any human being.

由于这样,早期基督教认为认为作为非犹太人,他们仅需要遵循诺亚的约,而非摩西的约。这里需要提到的是基督教早期最早的使徒(耶稣的门徒)大多为犹太人,而早期基督教在罗马帝国境内主要在异国人,非犹太人(Gentile)这样的人群中(非法)传播。早期的基督教认为有三种罪是不可赎的,分别是淫乱,崇拜偶像以及渎神。直到三世纪,基督教才开始接受为这些罪进行忏悔和赎罪。 - fornication(sexual intercourse between people not married to each other.) - idolatry(the worship of idols.) - blasphemy(the action or offence of speaking sacrilegiously about God or sacred things)

上帝之城(the City of God)

创世纪前11章并不是父慈子孝的,这些叙述同样揭示了混乱暴力毁灭。但上帝并没有创建邪恶,这些邪恶是意外的来自于人类自己。例如亚当夏娃传递出一种人类试图追求区分好与坏的能力(the human efforts to discern good from evil). 亚当和夏娃的后代更加糟糕,Cain杀死了他的弟弟Abel,上帝审判了他,但并没有如他恐惧的那样驱逐他,而是保护他。事实上他的孩子Enoch建立了第一座城市。城市这个概念在圣经中是非常重要的,基督教的伦理道德也随着追求上帝之城而兴起。正如上帝对以色列的召唤(the call of Isreal)是为了建造一座上帝和人民居住在一起的城市:

The role of the ‘city’ in the Bible is very important. In one sense, as St Augustine recognized, the movement of Scripture is towards the ‘City of God’, from which Christian ethics emerges. Unlike most earthly cities, nations, and empires, God’s calling of Israel is for the expressed purpose of building a ‘city’, ‘nation’ or ‘house’ where God dwells with people and people with God.

但是,建造城市的召唤并没有成功,那时说着相同语言的人们尝试建造一座直通上帝住所的通天塔,名为巴别。他们追寻自己的名,以此来对抗上帝,相应的,上帝使用不同的语言和国家分开了他们,巴别塔永远的结束了在了半途。

All human creatures have a common language and use their ‘communion’ with each other to build a city that will reach to the heavens, which is God’s created dwelling-place. They seek to make a name for themselves, and in so doing, rival God. In turn, God judges them by dividing them up into nations and languages. Their city, ‘Babel’ remains unfinished.

正如创世纪Genesis 11:8-9所言, 一座未完工的巴别塔,一座城市就永远的停留在了那里。

so the Lord scattered them from there over all the earth, and they stopped building the city. That is why it was called Babel[a]—because there the Lord confused the language of the whole world. From there the Lord scattered them over the face of the whole earth.

这里重要的是一座上帝和人居住在一起的城,也是上帝召唤亚伯拉罕的原因,正如Genesis 12:1-2所言,上帝的承诺展开了以色列的故事:

1The LORD said to Abram: Go forth* from your land, your relatives, and from your father's house to a land that I will show you. I will make of you a great nation, and I will bless you; I will make your name great, so that you will be a blessing.

这里有非常重要的两点,影响深远。这里的这种信念在极大程度上受到了犹太人历史遭遇的影响,那么这种信念正式对他们苦难历史的一种反应,也就是我和别的民族是不一样的。 - they are not to be like the other nations - they are not to be like the other nations for the sake of the nations

耶和华(Yahweh)要求他们耶和华是犹太人唯一的领袖。他们要先出埃及(exodus)才能获得的上帝的庇佑:

In order for them to live this way, they must first have an ‘exodus’. They come out of slavery in the great city of Egypt and are given several things no other nation has.

在出埃及之后,苦难被解除,犹太人民被解放,他们将获得: - the Divine Name, ehyeh asher ehyeh(I am who I am), which is the basis for the 'tetragrammation', or four-letter name for God: YHWH - the Torah, which are the gracious commands by which Jews live, and in so doing make God's Name holy throughout the earth - the assrance of God's presence or 'glory' through specific worship regulations and practices

摩西十诫讲,不可滥用上帝的名,但同时在出埃及记中神的名也由上帝给予了摩西,以一团不会吞噬灌木的火焰形态而现。带着上帝的名,摩西带领犹太人民结束了在埃及被奴役的悲惨命运,这里上帝并没有给予摩西军队和武力(世俗的力量),而是让摩西带给埃及法老真相(你所奴役的人民是上帝的子民,他们有着上帝给予的特殊任务,释放他们让他们去完成)。在出埃及之后,上帝给予了第二项也即Torah,指引着犹太人民如何生活,有着613条戒律,其中十诫是其中核心的内容。同样的,基督教伦理道德收到了极大Torah的影响。

十诫是非常特殊的,前面提到非犹太人在基督教中只需要遵守诺亚的约,其他的国家也有自己的规则和约,通常在以下两个条件下建立: - 在特定土地上的特定政权(a determined monarchy within a fixed territory),首先有土地然后有约 - 不遵守约会有惩罚(sanctions were noted for failure to keep the commands)

但是犹太人的约非常特殊,Torah在没有国王的沙漠中被给出。领土(land)和政权(monarchy)在一开始并不构成犹太人的民族标志,Torah才是。这里有一个rabbinic故事强调了这种不同,上帝同样讲Torah给了他的其他子民: - Esau的孩子:他们拒绝,因为Torah禁止杀戮("Thou shalt not kill'), 而他们的父亲要求他们依赖他们的剑,因为他曾经被嘱咐: By the sword shalt thou live(genesis 19:36). 这里Esau就是亚当夏娃的孩子,Easu杀死了弟弟Cain。 - Ammon和Moab的孩子:他们拒绝,因为Torah禁止淫(adultery), 而那是他们如何而来。Ammon和Moab在一次天灾后认为人类即将灭亡,于是女儿与父亲结合产生了后代。 - Ishmael的后代,他们拒绝,因为Torah禁止偷窃,而那是他们如何为生

以色列没有这种戏剧性的历史,所以他们接受了Torah。Torah提供了一种合适的平衡,让他们即不特别(没有戏剧性的历史),也是特别的(不像其他国家一样)。

祈祷者

Like the Ten Commandments, the Lord’s Prayer assumes the context of Christianity’s shared Jewish past. As Brant Pitre notes, it has a ‘single overarching theme: the hope for a New Exodus and the End of the Exile’. New exodus’ assumes God will repeat the act in the first exodus when God delivered Israel from slavery in Egypt and gave the Divine Name to Moses.

上帝在派摩西到埃及法老面前时,他说以色列是我的长子,让我的子民离去来信仰我,如果你拒绝我,我会杀死你的长子。

God’s message to Pharaoh says he is ‘Father’ to them; for God tells Moses to say to Pharaoh, ‘Israel is my first-born son. I said to you, “let my son go that he may worship me. But you refused to let him go; now I will kill your firstborn son”’ (Exodus 4:22–23).

这里就产生了一种类比,法老会为孩子的死而伤痛,而上帝会为他的孩子以色列而伤痛,正如上帝曾经解救过埃及一样,在未来仍然会有新出埃及记到到来,由上帝解放以色列人民。犹太人的先知预言了这样的一天。那么这里,以及可以看出Torah作为一种社会层面的约,他规定了犹太人如何生活,如何在生活中作为上帝的子民生活,如何在生活中让上帝的名神圣。所以这也是说为什么说 the Torah is a socail project or a social ethics. 结合犹太人被奴役的历史,这也是犹太人对于自己历史的一种反思和解释。以上帝子民的方式生活有几点特征: - 上帝子民的社会/部落不该有王,这也是他们和其他国家不一样的地方 - 上帝子民的社会是一个(没有王的)国

即便第一条带来了不稳定性,但第二条补全了这种不稳定。很多基督教伦理道德学派的学者认为,the Law(也就是Torah的一部分)给予了这种稳定性,法律给予了一个没有王社会对于维护稳定的需要。但这里,经典(Scripture)中也把君王当作一种礼物,犹太人渴望君主,带领着他们抵御外敌,那么在这个程度来说他们渴望成为别的国家,而不是一个不同于别的国家的国家。

so that we also may be like the other nations, and that our king may govern us and go out before us and fight our battles(I Samuel 8:20

基督教(与犹太教)的经典中反复强调了一个观点,去建造一座城市让上帝与他的子民生活在一起。如父子一般亲密的生活在一起:

Here we find once again the central task of a Christian (and Jewish) ethic - to build, or rather be built into, a ‘house’ where God and creatures dwell together, a city where God’s name is sanctified and God’s kingdom established. The intimacy between God and his people will be that of ‘father’ and ‘son‘. This is why Christians pray, ‘Our Father who art in heaven, thy kingdom come, thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven’.

Exile

跟据历史记载,犹太人的苦难并没有在出埃及之后结束,出埃及后犹太人建立了犹太王国,但随着所罗门的死亡犹太国一分为二,随后南北两国先后被巴比伦、希腊等其他民族瓦解覆灭、圣殿被毁坏。最后罗马侵占巴勒斯坦,把犹太人的圣殿付之一炬,犹太人被驱逐从此流落在世界各地。这种痛苦的民族经历也在一定程度上影响出了一种罪孽与苦难意识,那么这里就有一种观点:“犹太人建国是否满足了上帝对亚伯拉罕的召唤?”

On the one hand, the monarchy, land, and temple are gifts from God to Israel. On the other hand, they are ambiguous. Do they fulfil the call to Abraham? Has Israel come out from the nations in order to be a blessing to the nations, or has it simply become like the other nations? Eventually, everything is taken away - land, monarchy, and temple. Israel is led into exile, into the ‘diaspora’. Most peoples lose their identity and assimilate once they are exiles.

正如前面提到,Torah是一种social project,那么这种社会项目如何在犹太人丢失掉了所有社会的标志(土地land,君主monachary,寺庙Temple)后存在?但需要强调的是,这也是极为独特的一件事情,这种情况和在犹太人接受上帝给予的Torah时候是极为相似的,从而也就产生了一种深远的影响。那么在犹太人旅居国外和逃亡中,以色列人对上帝对他们的召唤产生了一种新的理解,也就是通过铭记Torah的方式,等待一次新的出埃及记和结束逃亡,也就是等待弥赛亚来拯救以色列人。那么基督耶稣就的使命就代替了这种希望。

Jesus's Mission

根据基督教福音记载,耶稣宣布着上帝的国,聚集了12位徒弟(使徒),在罗马进行传教,最后被罗马人以“耶稣是犹太人的国王”为由钉死在十字架上。这里面有一些很微妙的观点: - 耶稣召集12徒弟上一种恢复以色列的标志(a sign of the restoration of Israel) - 耶稣带领犹太人作为一种通过再一次的‘出埃及”达到上帝的荣光 - 可以原谅罪:通常作为上帝的权利,被指控为一种渎神(blasphemy) - 挑战寺庙,宣称自己的身体会成为新的寺庙

在钉死在十字架(crucifixion)与复活(resurrection), 绝大部分的基督徒认为耶稣的身体成为了上帝和创造物,天堂与人间交汇的地方。同样这也是基督教对耶稣身体三种形态的理解。 - Risen: historical body that bears the wounds of sin eternally and sits at the right hand of God - Eucharist, or Lord's Supper, which is distributed to the faithful and also referred to as the 'body of Christ' - the people this Sacrament, makes possible the Church, which is also called 'the body of Christ'. This body is now to be distributed throughout the world as a catholic reality.

教会的广义目标就是在国中保持特别('to be distinct for the sake of all the nations').

The beatitudes, theological virtues, gifts and fruits

传统的美德观点认为人真正的重点是幸福,这里很大程度上是受希腊文化的影响。基督教在罗马境内传播时,同样极大程度上收到了希腊文化的影响,那么基督教认为希腊人追求真正的幸福在耶稣和他叫做保佑的思想方式上。这种交融是自然而然的,因为早期基督教的发展极大的受到了希腊文化,尤其是希腊哲学的影响。 耶稣在布道的过程中,讲述了对幸福的观点,也就是‘beatitudes'. Beatitudes满足了Torah,某种程度上Beatitudes是Law的完美表现。这里马上就会有一个问题,如果我想要杀一个人但是只是在脑子里产生了一个简单的念头,这是对Law的一种违反吗?基督教认为这是违反的,因为Law并不是简单的要求遵守约定,而同样需要让上帝的名神圣(hollow God's Name), beatitudes会让我的行动完美,即便我不知道这些戒律也不会去违反,因这是人类的自然。但达到这种状态需要我们成为在上帝的国度里作为公民而生活,那么这种过程的达成就有一个由Aquinas叫做‘wayfarers’的概念。那么这里再一次,我们需要强调基督教不相信人的自治性,有一些东西是需要超自然的存在来帮助人类才能达到最终的幸福,这些神学的美德礼物八福是成为在上帝的城里生活必不可少的因素,也是圣经的重要主题之一。

对于上帝的王国这种设想是贯穿基督教经典的,当上帝的任务被满足时,天国也就到来。神学上的信念,希望和爱这些美德是前往上帝的城必不可少的一部分,爱在到达天国后仍然保留。Beatitudes也就是天国完美的体现,而来自圣灵的礼物和美德让人们达到天国成为了可能。也出于这种原因,beatitudes在传统基督教的伦理道德非常重要,正如Thomas所说:

Because when a man begins to make progress in the acts of the virtues and gifts, it is to be hoped that he will arrive at perfection, both as a wayfarer, and as a citizen of the heavenly kingdom.

Beatitudes也展示了当上帝的神性在人身上投射时,会是什么样子:

They set forth a vision of what God’s holiness looks like when embodied by God’s creatures.

除了神学的美德外,还有'Seven gifts',进而产生了一个讨论。人类的一些美德究竟是随着人的诞生自然产生的,还是作为一种礼物被上帝所给予的?

Four of the gifts perfect reason: they are wisdom, knowledge, understanding, and counsel. Three perfect the appetite: they are fortitude, piety, and fear.

基督教的神学家认为这种美德时来自于圣灵:

As Aquinas puts it: Wisdom is called an intellectual virtue, so far as it proceeds from the judgement of reason: but it is called a gift, according as its work proceeds from the Divine prompting.