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RN: Christian Ethics(3)

本篇文章是上篇文章的延续,继续研读基督教及其伦理道德的相关概念。前两章比较系统的介绍了基督教受希腊文化和希伯来文化的影响, 同时详细介绍了从基督教诞生到宗教改革的一系列思想观点和对伦理道德的态度。 那么第三章主要开始阐述基督教的伦理道德在现代和后现代的发展。

现代伦理道德

Luther是不赞成世俗的(也就是亚里士多德的对伦理的认知),他认为这种伦理道德不适用于基督徒。而在现代伦理道德中,Immanuel Kant和John Stuart Mill寻求一种适用于所有人的伦理道德。

Mill的伦理道德与亚里士多德的相似,强调幸福作为人生的终点,但对于幸福的理解则成为了对享乐的追求和对痛苦的避免, 以及对好的事情极尽所能的追求。

Mill’s ethics is similar in some ways to Aristotle’s; it also sets forth happiness as our telos. But happiness is now understood specifically as the pursuit of pleasure and/or the diminishment of pain. Mill’s utilitarian ethic summons people to pursue the greatest good for the greatest number.

Kant的伦理道德观是义务论的,源自于古希腊单词*deontos*, 意思是“约束”。与功利主义或亚里士多德伦理相反,它没有每个行动的目的,而是假设我们应该遵循绝对命令,做正确的事,而不用担心后果。

Kant’s ethics is ‘deontological’, which comes from the Greek word deontos, which means ‘binding’. Contrary to a utilitarian or Aristotelian ethic, it does not have a telos to which every action aims, but assumes we should do the right thing without being preoccupied with the consequences by following the categorical imperative.

这些现代伦理发展的有趣之处在于,追求善的社会背景的变化。 柏拉图和亚里士多德时代是城市, 奥古斯丁和阿奎那是教会,Mill是在市场(Mill曾在最早的跨国公司东印度公司工作),而Kant在现代民族国家新型国际主义下。

Ethics for the modern nation

在现代国家下,如何定义一种伦理道德来让不同宗教信仰/社群的人们达成一个一定程度上的共识就是一个新的问题。这种共识并不排斥宗教信仰,但毫无疑问宗教信仰在这种共识下被理解为个人而非公共的形式。这里Habermas继承了康德的思想,认为理性既不存在于个体的主管,也不存在于宇宙,而是存在于人与人的交互。

Habermas developed Kant’s thought in terms of the communal character of rationality. Reason is located neither in individual subjectivity nor in the cosmos, but in the pragmatic interactions among people.

基于这个观点,政治也就是从各种独立自主的人们出发,通过达成一定共识而产生的。这与超自然的力量毫不相干,自然也就谈不上人类的优良品质作为一种礼物或继承,来自于超自然的赠与。这种观点对于人类的美德和政治有了一种新的解释,上帝是可以被允许的,但并不一定对人类美德的唯一解释。

politics emerges as an autonomous act of persons who come together in consensual acts. It is not produced from outside itself. It is in no sense a super-natural gift bestowed and received.

这种观点尝试在对人生终极目标有着不同观点的人群中构建出一种稳定的共识。现代伦理道德也是在这种假设下诞生的,也就是人们不再对普遍超自然的“好”有着强烈的追求。相反的,现代伦理道德需要承认的是不存在这样一个普遍承认的内容,或者反对原有好的存在性:

Modern ethics emerges when people no longer assume a common, transcendent good that pulls all desires towards it. Modern ethics might best be understood as either an acknowledgement that no such end exists or as a revolt against it.

当然,失去这种对好的追求是两面的,一边来说它是进步(接触了世俗与宗教缠在一起的状况),但进步之后也是迷茫(因为我们不再存在一个普世的,好的定义)。

In such a vast, moving expanse, many persons no longer find arguments for ‘the good’ persuasive. This is both our promise and our dilemma.

迷茫往往导致nihilism,也即虚无主义,我们找不到我们要追求的目标,以及存在的意义。这里紧跟着就引出了一个问题,现代伦理道德观念的出现,是因为基督教伦理道德的失败导致的嘛?也就是说由于基督教对于真善美的定义出现了问题,不再满足人们对于现实世界的思考和需求,导致了基督教伦理道德的失败,以及现代伦理道德观念的形成。

Doesn’t a modern ethics emerge because of the failure of Christian claims to goodness and truth? Perhaps, although careful study of this history would show it is more ambiguous than is popularly recognized.

一些基督教伦理道德的失败

十足军东征(Crusade), 是非常典型的一种失败,无论是神学上还是政治上。在随后发现新大陆的过程中,这个过程还在继续。那么在对于原住民的态度上,对于伦理道德的认知也就起到了一个至关重要的作用。比如Sepúlveda就援引亚里士多德的观点,认为有些人天生就是劣等的。

Sepúlveda, drawing on Aristotle’s argument that some persons are naturally inferior, argued that the Native Americans should be colonized because the natural law requires inferior persons to obey ‘those who are outstanding in virtue and character’. Las Casas disagreed, arguing that the Spaniards committing these atrocities were more ‘barbarian’ than the Indians Sepúlveda demeaned.

不过这种观点最终并没有被所有人接受,Francisco de Vitoria’s 援引自然法来驳斥了这种观点,他认为除非罪行违反了自然法,譬如使用人来祭祀,西班牙人才在法律意义上可以介入。尽管如此,这种观点影响了11-16th殖民和十字军东征的行为,形成了一种新形式的奴役。 奴役本身并不新鲜,在基督教和犹太教出现之前已经存在。犹太教制定了一些法规来缓解其残酷的现实,因为犹太人承认自己是埃及的奴隶(这也是旧约第二章的根基)。事实上,对于群人和被压迫者的关心大部分通过犹太教和基督教进入了西方文化,而非希腊文化。比如在旧约Leviticus中所言,奴隶将会获得自由。

In the Jubilee year, as Leviticus 25 stipulates, slaves were to be set free. The end of slavery was associated with the messianic vision, the time when God would restore creation to God’s intended purposes.

在新约Luke 4中基督耶稣也说,上帝派我来解放奴隶:

The Spirit of the Lord is on Me, because He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives

尽管如此,基督教早先并不排斥奴隶制,虽然使徒保罗说洗礼之后,基督教里没有自由人也没有奴隶。当然这种愿景要花费很长的时间来结出果实。

even though the apostle Paul taught that in Christ there were neither free nor slave, which was associated with a new status brought about by baptism: As many of you as were baptized into Christ have clothed yourselves with Christ. There is no longer Jew or Greek, there is no longer slave or free, there is no longer male and female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus.

当然在基督教早期,有一些神父们公开的抗议奴隶制,但是大部分神学家(奥古斯丁等),把战争和奴役联系在一起。他们认为奴役是战胜方对于战败方的一种人道主义的退让,让他们从失去生命变成被奴役:

Most theologians, from Augustine to Las Casas, linked slavery and war. To make them slaves for life instead was regarded as a concession, almost a humanitarian gesture.’

当然直到18世纪末,人们才开始认识到奴隶制与福音是有着极大冲突的,但这种观点主要是被一些基督徒所认识到,来反对另外一些基督徒的。比如一些非洲后裔的基督徒,同时他们也被别人奴役,那么自然他们也会发现基督教教义与奴役之家的冲突与矛盾。

作者对于读者的建议与提示

在分析这个问题的时候,作者警示我们不要轻易的把反对宗教的世俗组织认为是一种将普罗大众从基督教的神学思想统治追踪解放出来的正义行为。

If we are to speak truthfully about this history, we should avoid thinking that some anti-religious secular organization battled against Christians to free the masses from its authoritarian rule. Nor was it a contest between the dogmatic orthodox and liberal free-thinkers.

也就是说,我们不能轻易的将被反对的一方归结于更容易错误,而反驳的一方更加的正义。就奴役方面,很多并不是天主教的人同样拥有奴隶,很多人用同期他人的失败来强调自己的正义与成功,以此来达到同期的政治目标。 也就是说,对于这种事情的解释必须非常小心的避免道德话,也不能通过证明他人过去的失败来证明“我们”占据了道德的高点。

Any interpretation of these events must take care to avoid a ‘moralizing’ that only uses these past failures in order to demonstrate ‘our’ moral superiority An old adage states that the abuse of a thing does not remove its usefulness.